Tuesday, April 20, 2021
Monday, April 12, 2021
Easy Tips For Online Teaching Through Mobile
The past decades have witnessed an explosion of technological developments; a variety of mobile devices and wireless technologies for communication and portals for sharing many types of informational resources have been introduced.
These developments have radically transformed our society in how we communicate, create, reclaim, share information, collaborate, and socialize. Education is no exception.
Education in electronic learning and teaching is still in infancy; it is far from making the most mobile technologies to support day-to-day classrooms and enhance learning experiences and processes.
Nevertheless, information and communication technology are being increasingly utilized as a teaching and learning tool in educational activities. Academic institutions across the globe are paying significant attention to the use of advanced technologies to facilitate their progress, especially in learning and teaching (Grabe, 2008 cited in Balash et al.,2011). It has also emerged as a new technological achievement and educational trend that provides educators and learners with a myriad of opportunities. The use of mobile technologies increases the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Teachers are no longer limited to teaching in the traditional brick and mortar classroom; they can use their mobile phone to share information at any time, anywhere.
What is mobile learning?
The definition of the term "mobile learning" is still developing day by day, and the exact meaning is still ambiguous. However, a research work (Lan and Sie 2010) describe mobile learning as a learning model which enables learners to access educational materials anywhere and anytime using mobile and internet technologies. Few characteristics of mobile devices are that they are usually inexpensive, portable and flexible. Therefore, mobile technology seems to be very attractive to learners and usable in the learning process. They comprise of several applications that can be useful in the teaching and learning process, including general software, such as Word, Excel, and PowerPoint (Mtega et al,2012) and other applications, such as language learning, mathematical problem-solving software, etc. (Alzaza and Yaakub, 2011). The most important feature of mobile learning that differentiates it from other learning technologies is its mobility. Despite these, it is unlikely that traditional education will be completely superseded.
A shift toward online education and mobile learning has begun, several institutions worldwide were planning to implement online education in the coming years, but the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 has resulted in a sudden integration of online teaching and learning. And, institutions were left with no options; they had to adapt to this change.
What are the different ways to teach online through mobile?
Herein, we have compiled a few easy to implement tips recommended by experts to provide error-free online teaching through mobile.
Set Goals
First of all, before using mobile technology to facilitate mobile learning, it is necessary to know your learners, their behaviour, their learning capacity and, most importantly, their mobile access.
Record Audio or Video
Every student learns differently. One can grasp all the teachings at once, while others require time. Therefore, for their better learning, you can use mobile to record a video on the lessons you've just completed.
You can also use this amazing recording feature to provide personal, and quality feedback on the work students recently turn in by recording a 10-20 seconds video on constructive feedback.
Poll or quiz learners in real-time
With mobile, you can easily create digital live poll/quizzing tools, both as welcome and exit tickets in the online classroom for formative evaluation. You no longer need to try activities like the tried-and-true "raise your hand if you…". There are several chargeable and free live polling tools; you can use them to assess what students are already aware of and what they should be concentrated upon. Live polling and quizzing tools can also provide insight into individual student strengths and weaknesses by tracking their progress and helping give personalized instruction when needed.
Chat and Online Discussion Forums
Another best thing about online mobile teaching is that you can exploit the group chat features to create an online discussion forum to encourage class participation on learning topics while sitting at different screen sides. Students can highlight any doubts they may have or answer your questions on the chat platform and discuss to improve their understanding of the concepts.
Use QR Codes
QR, the acronym for Quick Response (QR) codes, is another excellent tactic for using online teaching through mobile.QR codes provide instantaneous access to video, audio, website contact information, or any short text. With QR code, you can provide links to other resources, complex diagrams and images, solutions to tasks that could be coded and made available to students. The QR code can also link educational website or YouTube clippings for more information.
However, any lesson or study material encrypted with QR codes will require slightly more effort to create. Additionally, QR codes can also generate response keys next to each problem to enable students to check their work. To gain access, all that they need to do is scan the code.
Use statistics and analysis tools
Statistics and analytical tools can be used to track student progress and identify bottlenecks. This is one of the significant advantages of mobile learning: the ability to individualize the follow-up and customize the learning path based on each apprentice's progress.
Besides these tips, there are many apps to facilitate your online mobile learning.
Here are few tools recommended by the experts.
Designed especially for teachers, Nearpod allows teachers to present multimedia lessons that students can download to their mobile devices. The Nearpod app is available free of charge and offers different layouts, making it suitable for various instructional activities.
The other best application, Evernote, is an excellent application for maintaining personal assignment lists. From saving web pages to taking notes, images, files and audio, Evernote do it all. Every note is a cost-free app, which can be downloaded easily on your smartphone.
Invented for online instructors, Google Hangout lets you create free videoconferences for up to 10 people and help record the session via YouTube and turn the recorded conversation into an archived presentation for later viewings of the students. This platform's mobile application also allows users to engage in a chat.
Audioboom is another notable app for online mobile education. This app allows for easy communication with your students through three-minute podcasts that can be recorded using the app. You can easily share your podcasts on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter using your smartphone.
Free with in-app purchases, Squid is a handwritten note-taking application compatible with Android only. The app allows the teacher to import PDF worksheets into Squid and students to do the work directly on the sheets before exporting and sending them back to the teacher for review. In addition, teachers can import the student's work, assess it, and send it back to the student to see what improvements they need.
Free of charge, AnswerGarden helps teachers ask their students a question that can be answered in a single word or a short sentence. The answers provided are received by either a web link, QR code, or AnswerGarden's iOS app and start filling out on a view screen in a word cloud. AnswerGarden is an easy and excellent tool to use for brainstorm activities with a group in class.
Poll Everywhere started as a service for students to respond to a survey via SMS. However, students are now allowed to reply through a web browser or its mobile application. Teachers can use Poll Everywhere to create multiple-choice charts, filing charts, clickable images, and questions that include LaTeX syntax and alphabets of different world languages.
Another on the list, Animoto, is an amazing app that allows both teachers and students to make a short, 30-second share video of what they are about to teach or learned in a lesson, respectively. With a user-friendly interface for beginners, Animoto allows you to create catchy videos easily. All you need to do is:
Easily drag and drop your selected videos and photos into pre-built designed templates to help you stand out on social media and beyond. Then, customize your videos accordingly. You may choose from various professionally designed video styles and templates to create videos that look unique and, of course, attract learners.
Perfect for the 21st-century learning environment, the Answer Pad allows teachers to provide and capture data from the student's device using a web browser or the Answer Pad app. You can take a snapshot of the student's understanding in the classroom in six different ways. Not only this, on the Answer Pad application, students can also use a scratchpad to show their work. Later, the built-in, robust reporting system for item analysis prepares reports by skill, by class, and by the student, which teachers can view for aggregate reporting. Answer Pad also provides a transparent and user-friendly platform for interacting with students.
Backchannel Chat is an excellent classroom discussion tool designed specifically to assist teachers. This application can increase participation in class discussions and informally assess students' knowledge. Teachers can control all aspects of the discussion; they can delete messages and prevent students from displaying them if needed. Also, lock the room in order to add content.
Biblionasium is a safe and simple online book network that allows teachers to view books read by students, create challenges in reading and monitor their progress simultaneously. The app makes it possible for students to review and recommend books to their peers.
Another highly effective tool Padlet can be used in two ways:
- To create an anonymous question board where students can pin virtual sticky notes with questions that the teacher and other students can respond to.
- To save articles and web content that have been organized for specific subjects.
Needless to say, Padlet is much more attractive than your regular list of required readings!
A teacher kit is a tool that allows teachers to completely digitize their routine tasks such as marking attendance, recording grades, and more. It also helps to add behavioral notes for students and track their progress to focus on important things like teaching.
Do try these easy tips for hassle-free use of mobile phones in education.
Importance Of Global Education And International Boards In India
We live in a world where we are differentiated based on our race, caste, and gender. But our education must be universal for us to get accepted globally.
Global education means the education that unites the world population and makes us capable to fully interact with others around the world as one, without being isolated. The international boards in India help us achieve world-class education that is accepted worldwide, which makes it possible for us to become the global citizens of India.
UNESCO’s ‘Education Monitoring Report’ shows that inequality and exclusion are still a hindrance to our long-term goals.
Hence, the need for global education is clear.
Why is global education important?
Our world is now a global village. Therefore, its issues are also interconnected. Illiteracy and lack of unity is humankind’s biggest problem. This constitutes the need for global education.
Researches have shown that in the present times, the human race is suffering due to numerous reasons. And most of these issues are now massive global challenges.
Aims and purpose of global education
To address the current, global problems we need efforts on a global scale. Because to empower our future generations and to find out possible solutions in the post-pandemic stage, we need a level of education that can beat all odds.
Undoubtedly, skill-building has the power to shape up generations. As a result, the education designs worldwide are now focusing more on this aspect through a paradigm shift in the teaching and learning process.
So, this level of education aims to teach high-order thinking skills and global citizenship to students.
But, to build this level of citizenship, schools aim to impart world-class education.
World-class Education and International Curriculums in India
In the year 2020, a pioneer media company published the world’s best education providers' ranking. This list had the USA topping the charts with the first position. And the second-best in this line was the United Kingdom.
Let’s understand the scope and provisions of world-class education in India.
The American Curriculum:
The USA has made its place on the top because of its exceptional educational approach towards students' holistic development. The key feature of this curriculum is the emphasis on ‘quality learning’. As a result, it focuses on the student’s achievements and skill-building over and above just the grade completion.
The United Kingdom Curriculum:
The ‘National curriculum for England’, i.e. the ‘British’ curriculum, is also one of the world's most sought-after ones. Because it aims to prepare for adult life followed by great career options, it believes in a mastery approach that helps build high-level skills in students.
In India, world-class education is still a far-fetched dream!
However, the Indian designs have been supported by some international boards to raise the bar of education for a selected student base.
Global education in schools through International boards
Our Indian education system does acknowledge the need to provide world-class education to students.
However, it does not match up to the required level due to its age-old voids and gaps.
As a result, it offers alternative solutions for students. Only some schools like the British school and the American school in India collaborate with international boards. And in this way, they impart instructions that match international standards.
International boards of education in India:
International curriculums are delivered through international boards. Broadly Indian schools offer ‘International Baccalaureate’ and ‘Cambridge international’ curriculums for students.
These curriculums are believed to teach lifelong skills to students. For example- critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration, etc.
Schools can use them fully or incorporate them within their curriculum. Students who choose these options are believed to be more competent at the post-secondary level. As a result, they are even competing for the international workforce.
Let’s now take a quick look at some international boards of education in India:
AdvancED (Now, Cognia)
More than 40,000 education institutions worldwide.
Standards-based protocols and holistic approach.
The American curriculum.
Students can switch to any curriculum easily.
Recognized worldwide.
Cambridge International Examinations (CIE)
More than 10,000 schools in 160 countries
Zero Rote learning; inculcates on high order thinking skills.
National Curriculum of England, in an international context.
Students can easily switch between Cambridge schools and follow the same curriculum.
Recognized worldwide.
The Federation of British International Schools in Asia (FOBISIA)
With 79 member schools, operates in 18 countries within Asia.
Focuses on Promoting the excellence of British-style education.
National Curriculum of England, often in combination with local or IB curriculum.
Students can switch to any curriculum easily.
Globally accepted.
International Baccalaureate Organization (IB)
Operates with more than 5,400 schools in 158 countries.
Focuses on learning beyond just accumulating and memorizing.
IB curriculum; often uses the local curriculums as a base.
Maintains top standards for university-level preparation.
Globally accepted.
International curriculum aim at developing global citizenship in students.
What is a global citizen? Is it possible to be a global citizen?
Global citizens are believed to have a sound understanding of the issues going around in the world. They have a logical understanding of the happenings in the world and also have the potential to perceive these through their advanced skillsets. All in all, they develop a sense of responsibility that makes a difference in the world. It is now possible to be a global citizen by choosing the right education with a holistic approach and following the world’s standards.
5 Applications Of AI In Education
5 Applications Of AI In Education: From our households to the health sector, the advancements of AI are everywhere and the education sector is no exception. But, in what ways has it developed things in the higher education industry?
In order to ensure that students all over the world can apply to them, universities in most countries accept digital admission applications and paper applications are rare concepts these days. However, like all sectors, the digital transformation in admissions didn’t stop there. There are innumerable applications of AI in education and here are some of the most prominent ones:
AI in the classroom and learning
Several Indian startups these days are using artificial intelligence technologies to provide students with a better learning experience from the comfort of their homes. These AI and machine learning-powered technologies were very helpful during the COVID-19 pandemic when more than 1.5 billion students were forced to stay home. These technologies provide a means of personalized study plans and convenient learning. Other more commonplace use cases of AI are the cluster of applications by Google Cloud. Google Docs, Sheets, Slides, Keep, etc. have made collaborative learning easier. Augmented reality (AR) is also used by several universities abroad in order to help students get more interactive classroom education.
AI algorithms in test-taking
Similar to lectures and routine education, test-taking went online during COVID-19. According to an Educause poll in 2020, more than 54% of institutions were already using online or remote proctoring services. This allows students to continue their education assessments from the safety of their homes and be assured that the tests are being assessed fairly and monitored in an unbiased manner. High-value global tests such as LSAT, GMAT, SATs are being proctored using AI to ensure unbiased testing environments for students. Not only that, but institutions worldwide, mainly North American institutions which include names like the University of Florida, University of Mississippi, and more, have now conducted millions of tests.
Improve your essays using machine learning tech
There are several organisations with expertise in higher education, that have developed technologies that help students in writing essays, creating resumes, and even writing the Statements of Purpose required for overseas university applications. Assistive software like Grammarly have been in the running for a while now and use AI to check issues with grammar, plagiarism, sentence structure, etc. Other companies like iSchoolConnect use machine learning algorithms to take things a step further. Depending upon the nature of the content, these tools provide suggestions about the presence or absence of multiple parameters that make a resume or an essay impressive, without actually writing them for the student.
Preparing for university and job interviews
What if you could ensure that you ace your university or job interviews? Well, there are AI-powered technologies that can now make it possible. These tools help individuals take mock interviews and then give them feedback on a variety of parameters such as facial movement, gestures, voice pitch, and more. It also gives the users detailed insights into characteristics such as confidence, focus and several other behavioural characteristics. Such sophisticated AI technologies allow individuals to prepare for these interviews and gain the necessary skills to boost their chances of success in the final interviews. These also help take that edge off during the final interview.
Chatbots to your rescue
This generation's affinity to the internet and their devices is undeniable. To make sure that they can assist students all around the globe as well as within their institutions, many universities have deployed virtual assistants or chatbots on their websites, mobile apps, and all social channels. These chatbots can understand and answer thousands of questions posted by students and can respond accurately within a split second. Some of the best examples of that are the chatbots employed by New York University, Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford University, and many others.
From online learning to virtual assistants, the digital transformation and use of AI in the higher education sector have been growing rapidly over years and skyrocketed during the global pandemic. In the Indian market, this transformation began when companies made personalized learning options available for the masses. However, when COVID-19 hit, institutions worldwide turned to AI for online proctoring solutions. Today, AI and machine learning technologies not only help students with their essay-writing and other educational processes but also with the unique job and university interview preparation analyzers. Another astonishing example of AI in higher education would have to be the virtual assistant. To see the implementations of that, all you need to do is head to the websites of New York University, Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford University, etc. and test out their amazing chatbots. The influence of AI is undeniable, but the question is: How far does it extend?
Thursday, April 8, 2021
How nanotechnology can address the gaps in e-mobility
Carbon dioxide emissions are one of the key reasons for global climate change and the transportation sector is one of the fastest-growing contributors to energy-related CO2 emissions. Rapid urbanization has resulted in economic growth but at the same time increased the demand for automobiles. According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB), it is estimated that by 2030 the CO2 emissions in South East Asia is expected to increase three-to-five-fold times. Significant measures need to be undertaken to reduce these emissions and develop sustainable and clean energy solutions. Efficient technologies, managing traffic, and use of sustainable fuel are some of the many energy-efficient measures that can be adopted.
Electric Vehicles have become one of the key methods across the world for reducing carbon emissions from automobiles. The total number of electric cars in the world exceeded 7 million in 2019; with major sales contribution from China, US, and Europe, accounting for nearly 90%. Procurement of electric buses is on the rise in India, Europe, and Latin America.
Three types of electric vehicles include battery EVs (BEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEV). HEVs saw the global market in the 1990s, whereas BEVs and PHEVs came in a decade later. Battery electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids are a significant part of EVs and have seen huge growth over the past decade.
Preethy V. Warrier, IEEE Senior Member, discusses nanotechnology to address gaps in e-mobility, its adoption in the automobile industry and the future of EVs.
Nanotechnology to address the gaps in e-mobility
With batteries being the heart of electric vehicles, it is important to create safe, efficient, and long-lasting batteries that will not overheat or explode when used for long periods of time. Additionally, battery range and recharging time also limits the use of EVs. Nano particles can replace the internal structure of existing Li-ion batteries to increase the energy absorbing capacity and reduce the overall size. Battery performance can be improved by using nano particles and nano composite materials for the electrolytes. Carbon nano tubes can replace the existing graphite powder at the negative electrode of Li-ion batteries to improve the rate of removal/insertion of lithium and hence the battery capacity.
Significant research is being done on batteries made of aluminium-air, aluminium-graphite, and sodium-ion; using nano structured materials for the electrodes. Key issues with using nano materials include: the cost, commercial availability, and safety limitations. Most batteries are in early stages and will take time to expand to commercial scale.
Adopting nanotechnology in the automobile industry
Using nanotechnology in the transportation sector can create clean, safe, and sustainable vehicles. In the automobile industry, nanotechnology brings several advantages including lighter, stronger materials, improved engine efficiency and fuel consumption, and improved electronic systems. Furthermore, nano materials and technologies can be applied and used in various parts of a vehicle. Light weight automobile chassis based on nano-materials improve flexibility, increase strength, and reduce the overall weight of the vehicle. Nano-coated paints improve flexibility and offer quick adhesion and resistance to corrosion. Nano sized soot particles in tires can improve durability and fuel efficiency and can reduce the inner friction resulting in better rolling. In a nutshell, the advantages of nanotechnology in cars include lighter, stronger materials, improved energy efficiency and fuel consumption (with the use of catalysts, fuel additives & lubricants), reduced environmental impact by using hydrogen and fuel-cells, improved miniaturized power electronic systems providing better control, longer service life, reduced component failures, and smart materials for self-repair.
Future of EVs and automobile industry
The cost of electric vehicles is a major concern. Many car markets offer subsidies or tax reductions for purchasing electric cars. In South East Asia, Thailand is the first country to offer incentives for EV manufacturers and tax reductions on the sale of their cars. India has also set up policies to further expand electric vehicles including two-wheelers, fleet vehicles and buses. Batteries constitute a major part in the EV cost. Setting up more battery manufacturing units with expanded capacity in the coming decade will result in rapid cost reduction. Improved materials for charging should also be adopted to create longer lasting batteries that are safe, cheap and have improved energy capacity. The aggressive sustainable target set for 2030 will favour the promotion of more electric vehicles and to help develop them the world needs to have more renewable energy.
Indian EV Sector: Growth & Challenges
The Indian Electric Vehicle sector functions under the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India Scheme (FAME India scheme). It is part of the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan to encourage EVs by providing subsidies and is monitored by the Department of Heavy Industry (DHI), the Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises. The scheme has two phases:
- Phase I – started in April 2015 and was completed by March 31, 2019.
- Phase II – Started in April 2019 and will be completed by March 31, 2022.
Phase II scheme is an extended version of Phase I with a focus on technology development, demand creation, pilot projects and charging infrastructure. It covers electric two-wheelers, three-wheelers including rickshaws and four-wheelers, buses, plug-in hybrid, and strong hybrid four-wheelers. Under Phase II of the scheme, 670 electric buses in the states of Gujarat, Chandigarh, Maharashtra, and Goa and 241 charging stations in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Port Blair have been sanctioned. The first electric internet SUV with a driving range of 340 km on a full charge was launched in January 2020 and in the following month; India’s first inter-city electric bus was inaugurated. India aims to deliver 30@30, which means ensuring 30% of vehicle sales are electric by 2030.
Rapid developments come with various challenges. Some of the main concerns in the Indian EV sector are:
- Charging infrastructure: the country needs to have enough charging stations (both public and at homes) to power all the electric vehicles. As of 2018, India had only 650 charging stations.
- Grid infrastructure: an increasing number of EVs will be accompanied by rising energy demand. Concerns will arise when charging stations are integrated with renewable energy sources and it will affect grid stability and resiliency in the grid-tie systems.
- Affordability / upfront cost: batteries of EVs are expensive and require replacement at least once in their design lifetime. The capital cost of an electric car is high (about 2.5 times the conventional petrol/diesel powered cars) which makes it difficult for the average adult to afford.
- Battery technologies: effective and improved battery technology needs to be incorporated to mitigate current issues like charging life, driving range, energy capacity, cost, and safety.
5 most in-demand skills for data center of the future
The modern data center is constantly evolving to accommodate various types of new workloads. As businesses witness growth, the demand for running complex workloads at scale and pace is paramount in the new IT environment. This may require a complete revamp of the data center architecture or involve building more capabilities on top of the existing architecture – both underlining the need for new skillsets to achieve the objectives.
The task for data center administrators, today, go beyond maintaining and monitoring data center sites and ensuring 24/7 availability. Penetration of cloud services and 5G networks has catalysed a new wave of digital transformation; and building new skill sets is the need of the hour. The need to embrace emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT) and intelligent data analytics will redefine how organisations look at their data centers. Furthermore, the widespread adoption of as-a-service models and cloud computing among enterprises calls for specialised skills in the software domain.
Let’s look how these evolving dynamics will spur demand for new skills for data center of the future:
Cloud Architect: This is a new role that is in demand across data centers and major technology firms. The cloud is constantly evolving, and professionals with cloud architecture experience who have the required skills in planning, designing, developing and migrating applications in the cloud will be in high demand. Cloud architects have deep knowledge of architectural principles, and also have skills related to software development, third party integration, databases, along with Devops, networking and enterprise security. Cloud architects are also expected to have strong communication skills and have the ability to align the technology priorities with business imperatives.
Cloud Configuration Management: Hybrid IT is now a reality across industries as organisations embrace a hybrid environment due to the agility that it provides. In the future, this is set to become a bigger trend, as organizations embrace multiple clouds to cater to optimize different workloads. In this new hybrid environment, organizations will require people with the requisite skills to migrate data and applications between the cloud and on-premise platforms. In this new environment, a sought-after skill will be professionals with experience of working with configuration management tools. Cloud configuration management involves configuring hardware and software for the cloud (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS). There are many software tools available in the market for cloud configuration management, and data center managers will seek the help of professionals who are well equipped in software tools such as Chef, Puppet or SaltStack.
Edge Computing: As we move towards a hyper-connected world, billions of devices will be connected to the Internet, thereby bringing intelligence to the Edge in the form of Edge Computing. This will lead to the revamping of network architectures and how data is handled. As more and more edge computing deployments become reality, enterprises will seek intelligent and cost-efficient ways to collect data from IoT devices, analyse the data and then route it to a remote and on-premise data center. As edge computing blends different functions, data center managers will seek professionals, who have a mix of different skills such as networking, system design, database modelling and security. System design skills are critical as most edge devices have resource constraints, and hence, systems need to be designed to operate without performance degradation and be interoperable with other devices. Similarly, networking is another important component, as a network which is not optimized can affect the performance in a big way. Edge devices are known to exchange huge amounts of data and are always connected. Database specialists are required for designing database structures more efficiently so that data storage, distribution and analysis can be done efficiently. Edge devices are more prone to security risks, and security professionals will need to have the same levels of data protection features such as encryption and authentication.
Artificial Intelligence: Gartner predicts that more than 30 percent of data centers that fail to sufficiently prepare for AI will no longer be operationally or economically viable by 2020. Given this reality, it is imperative for data center managers to have people who have expertise of using AI to deliver more efficiency. While AI can certainly perform routine tasks such as patching security updates, taking backups or even updating systems, the task of designing algorithms and optimizing it to ensure better results is left to skilled professionals. This can include writing algorithms for ensuring optimum load distribution, scaling systems efficiently and automatically, and performance monitoring and troubleshooting.
Security: This is the most critical skillset, and will always be in high demand. Highly skilled information security specialists will always be required to help data centers protect themselves proactively against attacks. While currently, information security specialists are focused on detecting and acting against threats in the network, workloads or applications, in the future, they will focus on using automated tools to detect anomalies in the network, and use automated intelligence to proactively protect their firms. For example, the focus will change from SOC specialists who can detect threats now to professionals who can create algorithms or write scripts for automatically detecting attacks. Data center managers will also require the help of cybersecurity architects who can see the bigger picture, and create a centralized threat perception model, gained from looking at all the different threat vectors. In addition, new roles such as data privacy officers will also be required, who are well versed with legal matters and different regulatory requirements as needed to be compliant.
Having said this, data centers will no longer be used in their traditional forms; they will become more intelligent, automated and software-defined. As organisations look at modernising their data center environments, there will be a significant demand for the above skillsets. This will, undoubtedly, result in the transformation of how data centers are operated, managed and monitored. Skills around AI, ML, software-defined, cloud and intelligent edge will be instrumental for the data center of the future.
What the history of copyright in academic publishing tells us about Open Research
It has become a fact of academic life, that when researchers publish papers in academic journals, they sign away the copyright to their research, or licence it for distribution. However, from a historical perspective this practice is a relatively recent phenomenon. In this post Aileen Fyfe, explores how copyright has become intertwined with scholarly publishing and presents three insights from the history of the Royal Society that inform ongoing debates around openness in research and scholarly communication.
The protections offered by copyright have enabled authors – and their publishers – to make a living from their works since the first copyright act, for ‘the Encouragement of Learning’, was passed in 1710.
Academic authors, however, do not depend upon copyright for their livelihoods. Instead, for many researchers, copyright has come to seem like a tool used by publishers to pursue commercial, rather than scientific interests. Notably, open access advocates have long argued for changes to the ways researchers use copyright, a position that has recently found support in Plan S’ mandate for the use of Creative Commons licences as an alternative.
Understanding how we have reached this point is significant, as it highlights how attitudes to the copying, reprinting and sharing of research have developed over time. Here, I present three insights that shed light on the current state of scholarly publishing, drawn from my team’s research on the history of publishing at the Royal Society, and one of the earliest journals, The Philosophical Transactions.
- Scientific journals and the scholarly norms governing the reuse of research were developed outside the framework of copyright.
The Philosophical Transactions had been running for 45 years before the first UK copyright act was passed; and was 177 years old by the time periodical publications were included within the remit of the 1842 Copyright Act. By then, its editorial and authorial practices were well-established and were based on the norms of sociability that shaped the world of eighteenth-century gentlemanly scholars.
Authors who ‘presented’ a paper to the Royal Society in, say, the 1780s, were understood to be giving the Society a ‘present’: there was no exchange of money, but the Society acquired an ownership claim on both the physical manuscript and the findings it contained. In return, authors gained social capital, or prestige, as the Society’s processes ensured that their discoveries were recorded, dated, and attributed to them. The Society paid the costs of publishing papers in the Transactions and there was no expectation that sales would generate a profit for either publisher or author.
The social motivations for authoring and publishing scholarly research in this period meant that copyright legislation – designed to enable authors or their publishers to take action to prevent a loss of income – was irrelevant. The Royal Society doesn’t even appear to have formally registered its ownership of its journal titles after the 1842 act, a step which would have been essential if a legal case were to be pursued.
- Scholarly organisations were historically supportive of efforts to reprint, reuse and share research papers, so long as credit and priority were appropriately attributed.
Regardless of copyright, the Royal Society’s claim on the material published in the Transactions was widely recognised: authors, editors, and publishers, who wished to reprint the material, routinely sought and were granted permission to do so. Throughout the nineteenth century, the Society further assisted the dissemination of research by lending the engraved metal plates or lithographic stones used for the illustrations in the Transactions. For instance, the illustrations for Michael Faraday’s seminal papers on electromagnetism in the early 1830s, were repeatedly reused in his books until at least 1877. By that time, the Society was also routinely lending its illustrations to periodicals that reported scientific news, such as Nature and Chemical News.
The society expected no payment from those who reprinted or reused the Transactions papers, for it wished to encourage the circulation of knowledge. But it did expect attribution and acknowledgement. There were occasions when the Society did see reprinting or reuse as a threat, but the perceived threat was to reputation, not to income.
- Scholarly publishers became more alert to copyright legislation, as they became more interested in seeing commercial gain from publishing.
The Royal Society advised the government on a variety of issues throughout the nineteenth century; but not on copyright. Its absence from the (several) debates on copyright reform speaks to the distance between scholarly publishing and the commercially-focused book trade during this period.
The first example we have found of the Royal Society directly engaging with copyright legislation was in the 1950s. The introduction of micro-photography and photocopying led some publishers to argue that such copying would hurt their sales and was a breach of copyright. Learned society publishers, however, argued that photocopying would be a valuable means for individual researchers to make their own copy of the whole, or parts of research papers held by their institutional library, without having to copy it all out by hand. In 1950, the Royal Society led the creation of a voluntary code on ‘fair copying’, by which over a hundred publishers permitted the copying of journal papers for individual study or research. Equivalent provisions were included in the 1956 Copyright Act.
Learned societies had traditionally seen publishing as a means of sharing knowledge with the scholarly community, and of generating individual and especially institutional prestige. Reprinting and reuse helped to achieve that aim. But by the 1950s and 1960s, learned societies faced increased pressure to make their publishing activities financially sustainable; and the example of new commercial players suggested publishing could even become profitable.
The Royal Society had held copyright jointly with its authors in the mid-twentieth century, but in response to the 1988 Copyright Act, it now argued that owning copyright would give it control over income from ‘secondary rights, such as reprinting, reproduction and electronic document delivery’ (which, at the time, meant CD-ROMs or early computer networks). It introduced copyright transfer forms in 1990.
Open Research Now
It is the use of copyright transfer forms – in which academic authors freely give publishers the right to make money from publicly- or charitably-funded research – that has aroused so much opposition in recent years. As a result, the Royal Society is now one of several big publishers to have replaced copyright transfer with a licence agreement under which the author retains copyright. But some publishers have managed to craft licence agreements that are nearly as restrictive – in terms of sharing and reuse – as the copyright agreements they replaced. To find a way to alter or work around copyright’s commercial imperatives, in the name of improving the circulation and accessibility of research, we need the appropriate leadership. It needs both vision and scholarly credentials. In the 1950s, the Royal Society had both, but their commercially-successful publishing division has since come to overshadow the older vision. And in the intervening decades, both universities and government funding bodies have become more prominent in shaping research culture. With this history in mind, can we hope that UKRI and UUK and other international research funders will think creatively about copyright in academia?
About the Author:
Aileen Fyfe is a historian of science and technology who investigates the development of scholarly publishing practices. She is Professor of Modern History at the University of St Andrews, and leader of the ‘Publishing the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-2015’ project (in partnership with the Royal Society, and funded by AHRC grant AH/K001841). She was lead author of Untangling academic publishing: a history of the relationship between commercial interests, academic prestige and the circulation of research (2017); and is currently putting the finishing touches to a co-authored book-length study of the Philosophical Transactions. She can be found on twitter @aileenfyfe
A fuller discussion of points 1 and 2 of this post can be found in Aileen Fyfe, Julie McDougall-Waters, & Noah Moxham (2018), ‘Credit, copyright, and the circulation of scientific knowledge: the Royal Society in the long nineteenth century‘ published in Victorian Periodicals Review, open access version available here
Point 3 will be discussed in a forthcoming chapter; but readers interested in the 1950s ‘fair copying’ debate may like to consult Brad Sherman and Leanne Wiseman, ‘Fair Copy: Protecting Access to Scientific Information in Post-War Britain’, published in The Modern Law Review
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